Vol. 73 No. 1 (2025): NAMES: A Journal of Onomastics
Articles

Unveiling Identity: Understanding and Addressing Name Bias and Prejudice among the Marginalized in Turkey

Ömer Gökhan Ulum
Mersin University

Published 2025-03-14

Keywords

  • anthroponymy,
  • socioonomastics,
  • personal names,
  • ethnonym,
  • implicit bias,
  • identity formation,
  • name bias
  • ...More
    Less

Abstract

This study explores the pervasive impact of name bias on Kurdish-origin individuals and Syrian Arab refugees within Turkey's socio-political landscape. Using quantitative methodology, the research developed a Likert-scale questionnaire through exploratory factor analysis, identifying five key factors: Personal Experiences, Institutional Practices, Societal Perceptions, Personal Attitudes, and Occupational Settings. Grounded in social identity theory and Allport's contact hypothesis, the study investigates the influence of name bias on socioeconomic opportunities, cultural integration, and psychological well-being. The findings show significant disparities in perceived name bias across ethnicities, genders, and educational levels, with Kurdish-origin individuals experiencing higher bias in personal and institutional contexts. Further, this study highlights the intersectionality of name bias and its amplification by societal structures. It provides empirical insights from a non-Western context, advocating for systemic policy, education, and workplace changes to reduce name-based discrimination. Finally, this study contributes to the field of onomastics, emphasizing the need for targeted interventions to create an inclusive society where one's name does not constrain identity and opportunities.

References

  1. Abbas, Tahir. 2016. Contemporary Turkey in Conflict: Ethnicity, Islam and Politics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
  2. Abel, Martin, and Rulof Burger. 2023. “Unpacking Name-Based Race Discrimination”. IZA Discussion Paper No. 16254. Bonn: Institute of Labour Economics (IZA). https://hdl.handle.net/10419/278952
  3. Ahmad, Akhlaq. 2020. “When the Name Matters: An Experimental Investigation of Ethnic Discrimination in the Finnish Labour Market”. Sociological Inquiry 90, no. 3: 468–496. https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12276
  4. Ahmed, Ali, Lina Andersson, and Mats Hammarstedt. 2010. “Can Discrimination in the Housing Market Be Reduced by Increasing the Information about the Applicants?” Land Economics 86, no. 1: 79–90. https://doi.org/10.3368/le.86.1.79
  5. Ainiala, Terhi, and Jan-Ola Östman. 2018. “Socio-Onomastics and Pragmatics”. Gender and Methodology in the Ancient Near East, Barcino Monographica Orientalia 10. Accessed August 23, 2024. https://researchportal.helsinki.fi/files/130561161/Chapter_One_Ainiala_stman.docx
  6. Aldrin, Emilia. 2017. “Assessing Names? Effects of Name-Based Stereotypes on Teachers’Evaluations of Pupils’ Texts”. Names 65, no. 1: 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/00277738.2016.1223116
  7. Allport, Gordon W. 1963. “Prejudice: Is it Societal or Personal?”. Pastoral Psychology 14: 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01768375
  8. Allsopp, Harriet. 2016. The Kurds of Syria: Political Parties and Identity in the Middle East. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.
  9. Amir, Yehuda. 1969. “Contact Hypothesis in Ethnic Relations”. Psychological Bulletin 71, no. 5: 319–342. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0027352
  10. Anderson, Kristin J. 2010. Benign Bigotry: The Psychology of Subtle Prejudice. New York: Cambridge University Press.
  11. Anderson-Clark, Tracey, Raymond Green, and Tracy Henley. 2008. “The Relationship Between First Names and Teacher Expectations for Achievement Motivation”. Journal of Language and Social Psychology 27, no. 1: 94–99. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X07309514
  12. Anderson, Lisa, Niklas Jakobsson, and Andreas Kotsadam. 2012. “A Field Experiment of Discrimination in the Norwegian Housing Marker: Gender, Class, and Ethnicity”. Land Economics 88, no. 2: 233–240. https://doi.org/10.3368/le.88.2.233
  13. Anthias, Floya. 2011. “Intersections and Translocations: New Paradigms for Thinking about Cultural Diversity and Social Identities”. European Educational Research Journal 10, no. 2: 204-217. https://doi.org/10.2304/eerj.2011.10.2.204
  14. Anthias, Floya. 2013. “Intersectional What? Social Divisions, Intersectionality and Levels of Analysis”. Ethnicities 13, no. 1: 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468796812463547
  15. Aytaç, S. Erdem, and Ali Çarkoğlu. 2019. “Ethnicity and Religiosity-Based Prejudice in Turkey: Evidence from a Survey Experiment”. International Political Science Review 40, no. 1: 58–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512117696333
  16. Bagci, Sabahat Cigdem, Sofia Stathi, and Berfin Acar. 2022. “Intergroup Contact among Majority and Minority Status Groups in Turkey: Extending Theory and Practice.” Examining Complex Intergroup Relations through the Lens of Turkey, edited by Cakal Huseyin and Shenel Husnu, 239–275. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003182436-14
  17. Baert, Stijn, Bart Cockx, Niels Gheyle, and Cora Vandamme. 2015. “Is There Less Discrimination in Occupations Where Recruitment Is Difficult?” ILR Review 68, no. 3: 467–500. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793915570873
  18. Baird, Joanne. 1998. “What’s in a Name? Experiments with Blind Marking in A-Level Examinations”. Educational Research 40, no. 2: 191–202. https://doi.org/10.1080/0013188980400207
  19. Bertrand, Marianne, and Sendhil Mullainathan. 2004. “Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination”. American Economic Review 94, no. 4: 991–1013. https://doi.org/10.1257/0002828042002561
  20. Baser, Bahar. 2013. “The Kurdish Diaspora in Europe: Identity Formation and Political Activism”. TÜSİAD Foreign Policy Forum Research Report. No. 1. İstanbul: Boğaziçi University, 2013. http://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/28337
  21. Bohnet, Iris, Alexandra Van Geen, and Max Bazerman. 2016. “When Performance Trumps Gender Bias: Joint vs. Separate Evaluation”. Management Science 62, no. 5: 1225–1234. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.2015.2186
  22. Booth, Alison, and Andrew Leigh. 2010. “Do Employers Discriminate by Gender? A Field Experiment in Female-dominated Occupations”. Economic Letters 107, no. 2: 236–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2010.01.034
  23. Booth, A. L., A. Leigh, and E. Varganova. 2012. “Does Ethnic Discrimination Vary across Minority Groups? Evidence from a field experiment”. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics 74, no. 4: 547–573. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0084.2011.00664.x
  24. Bosch, Mariano, M. Angeles Carnero, and Lídia Farré. 2010. “Information and Discrimination in the Rental Housing Market: Evidence from a Field Experiment”. Regional Science and Urban Economics 40, no. 1: 11–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.regsciurbeco.2009.11.001
  25. Brédart, Serge. 2018. “An Own-Name Bias on Person Memory in Twins.“ Names 66, no. 1: 47–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/00277738.2017.1415524
  26. Brown, Rupert. 2000. “Social Identity Theory: Past Achievements, Current Problems, and Future Challenges. “European Journal of Social Psychology 30, no. 6: 745–778. https://doi.org/10.1002/1099-0992(200011/12)30:6<745::AID-EJSP24>3.0.CO;2-O
  27. Burns, Anne. 2005. “Action Research: An Evolving Paradigm?” Language Teaching 38, no. 2: 57–74. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444805002661
  28. Bükün, Mehmet Fatih. 2014. “The Role of Social Identity and Collective Memory in Predicting Ingroup Bias and Collective Action in Turkey's Alevis”. Master's thesis, Middle East Technical University, 106, https://open.metu.edu.tr/handle/11511/23887
  29. Carlsson, Magnus, and Dan-Olof Rooth. 2007. “Evidence of Ethnic Discrimination in the Swedish Labour Market Using Experimental Data”. Labour Economics 14, no. 4: 716–729. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2007.05.001
  30. Carpusor, Adrian G., and William E. Loges. 2006. “Rental Discrimination and Ethnicity in Names”. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 36, no. 4: 934–952. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00050.x
  31. Carsenat, Elian, and Evgeny Shokhenmayer. 2014. “Onomastics to Measure Cultural Bias in Medical Research”, Names and Their Environment”: Proceedings of the 25th International Congress of Onomastic Sciences”, 25–29. https://www.gla.ac.uk/media/Media_576598_smxx.pdf
  32. Chiswick, Barry R., and Paul W. Miller. 1995. “The Endogeneity Between Language and Earnings: International Analyses”. Journal of Labour Economics 13, no. 2: 246–288. https://doi.org/10.1086/298374
  33. Conaway, Wendy, and Sonja Bethune. 2015. “Implicit Bias and First Name Stereotypes: What Are the Implications for Online Instruction?” Online Learning 19, no. 3: 162–178. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v19i3.674
  34. Connolly, Paul. 2000. “What Now for the Contact Hypothesis? Towards a New Research Agenda”. Race Ethnicity and Education 3, no. 2: 169¬–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613320050074023
  35. Cotton, John L., Bonnie S. O’Neill, and Andrea Griffin. 2008. “The ‘name game’: Affective and hiring reactions to first names”. Journal of Managerial Psychology 23, no. 1: 18–39. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940810849648
  36. Crenshaw, Kimberlé Williams. 2013. “Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against Women of Color”. The Public Nature of Private Violence, edited by Martha Albertson Fineman and Roxanne Mykitiuk, 93–118. New York: Routledge.
  37. Cunningham, Sheila J., and David J. Turk. 2017. “Editorial: A Review of Self-processing Biases in Cognition” The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology 70, no. 6: 987–995. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470218.2016.1276609
  38. Daniels, Jessie. 2013. “Race and Racism in Internet Studies: A Review and Critique”. New Media & Society 15, no. 5: 695–719. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444812462849
  39. Derous, Eva, Hannah-Hanh Nguyen, and Ann Marie Ryan. 2009. “Hiring Discrimination Against Arab Minorities: Interactions between Prejudice and Job Characteristics”. Human Performance 22, no. 4: 297–320. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959280903120261
  40. Dion, Kenneth L. 1983. “Names, Identity, and Self”. Names 31, no. 4: 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1179/nam.1983.31.4.245
  41. Dovidio, John F., Samuel L. Gaertner, and Kerry Kawakami. 2003. “Intergroup Contact: The Past, Present, and the Future”. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 6, no. 1: 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430203006001009
  42. Dönmez, Rasim Özgür. 2007. “Nationalism in Turkey: Political Violence and Identity”. Ethnopolitics 6, no. 1: 43–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/17449050601161340
  43. Eagly, Alice H. 2005. “Prejudice: Toward a More Inclusive Understanding”. The Social Psychology of Group Identity and Social Conflict: Theory, Application, and Practice, edited by Alice H. Eagly, Reuben M. Baron, and Hamilton V. Lee, 45–64. Washington: American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10683-003
  44. Edwards, Rachel. 2006. “What’s in a Name? Chinese Learners and the Practice of Adopting ‘English’ Names”. Language, Culture and Curriculum 19, n. 1: 90–103. https://doi.org/10.1080/07908310608668756
  45. Ellemers, Naomi, and S. Alexander Haslam. 2012. “Social Identity Theory”. Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology, edited by Paul A. M. Van Lange, Tory Higgins, and Arie W. Kruglanski, 379–398, Los Angeles, CA: Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n45
  46. Erwin, Philip G. 1993. “First Names and Perceptions of Physical Attractiveness”. The Journal of Psychology 127, no. 6: 625–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.1993.9914901
  47. Erwin, Philip G., and Avraham Calev. 2011. “The Influence of Christian Name Stereotypes on the Marking of Children’s Essays”. British Journal of Educational Psychology 54, no. 2: 223–227. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.1984.tb02583.x
  48. Felecan, Oliviu, and Alina Bugheşiu, eds. 2021. Names and Naming: Multicultural Aspects. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  49. Feldman, Michelle E. and Allyson J. Weseley. 2013. “Which name unlocks the door? The effect of tenant race/ethnicity on landlord response”. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 43, no. S2: E416–E425. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12034
  50. Ferguson, Russell, Martha Gever, Trinh T. Minh-Ha, and Cornel West, eds. 1992. Out There: Marginalization and Contemporary Culture. Cambridge: MIT Press.
  51. Fırat, Mustafa. 2019. “Turks’ Prejudice Against Kurds and Syrians: The Role of Contact, Identification, and Threat”. Master's thesis, Boğaziçi University, 105, http://digitalarchive.boun.edu.tr/handle/123456789/17041
  52. Fırat, Mustafa, and Bilge Ataca. 2020. “When Does Imagined Contact Reduce Prejudice? No Evidence That Ingroup Identification Moderates the Imagined Contact Effect”. Social Psychology 51, no. 4: 254–266. https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000413
  53. Finch, Janet. 2008. “Naming Names: Kinship, Individuality and Personal Names”. Sociology 42, no. 4: 709–725. https://doi.org/10.1177/0038038508091624
  54. Fitzherbert, Yvo. 2019. “The Politics of Civic Identity in Turkey: 2011–2017”. Master’s thesis, Boğaziçi University, 190. http://digitalarchive.boun.edu.tr/handle/123456789/19527
  55. Forbes, Hugh D. 2004. “Ethnic Conflict and the Contact Hypothesis. “ The Psychology of Ethnic and Cultural Conflict, edited by Yueh-Ting Lee, Clark McCauley, Fathali Moghaddam, and Stephen Worchel, 69–88. New York: Praeger Press.
  56. Foster, Gigi. 2008. “Names Will Never Hurt Me: Racially Distinct Names and Identity in the Undergraduate Classroom”. Social Science Research 37, no. 3: 934–952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.02.004
  57. Fryer Jr, Roland G., and Steven D. Levitt. 2004. “The Causes and Consequences of Distinctively Black Names”. The Quarterly Journal of Economics 119, no. 3: 767¬–805. https://doi.org/10.1162/0033553041502180
  58. Gaddis, S. Michael, and Raj Ghoshal. 2015. “Arab American Housing Discrimination, Ethnic Competition, and the Contact Hypothesis”. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 660, no. 1: 282–299. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716215580095
  59. Gaunt, Ruth. 2011. “Effects of Intergroup Conflict and Social Contact on Prejudice: The Mediating Role of Stereotypes and Evaluations”. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 41, no. 6: 1340–1355. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.2011.00762.x
  60. Gebauer, Jochen E., Mark R. Leary, and Wiebke Neberich. 2012. “Unfortunate First Names: Effects of Name-Based Relational Devaluation and Interpersonal Neglect”. Social Psychological and Personality Science 3, no. 5: 590–596. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550611431644
  61. Goldstein, Joshua R., and Guy Stecklov. 2016. “From Patrick to John F. Ethnic Names and Occupational Success in the Last Era of Mass Migration”. American Sociological Review 81, no. 1: 85–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122415621910
  62. Green, Donald P., and Janelle Wong. 2009. “Tolerance and the Contact Hypothesis: A Field Experiment”. The Political Psychology of Democratic Citizenship, edited by Eugene Borgida, Christopher M. Federico, and John L. Sullivan, 228–246. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
  63. Greenwald, Anthony G., Debbie E. McGhee, and Jordan L. Schwartz. 1998. “Measuring Individual Differences in Implicit Cognition: The Implicit Association Test”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 74, no. 6: 1464–1480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
  64. Grønstad, Line Førre. 2024. “Tradition and Gender: Norwegian Men’s Surnames”. Nordic Journal of Socio-Onomastics 4, no. 1: 41-67. https://doi.org/10.59589/noso.42024.15577
  65. Gürpınar, Doğan. 2012. “What Is in a Name? The Rise of Turkic Personal Male Names in Turkey (1908–38)”. Middle Eastern Studies 48, no. 5: 689–706. https://doi.org/10.1080/00263206.2012.703617
  66. Haim, Amit, Salinas Alejandro, and Julian Nyarko. 2024. “What's in a Name? Auditing Large Language Models for Race and Gender Bias”. arXiv: 1–34. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2402.14875
  67. Hafner, Lena, Theodor Peter Peifer, and Franziska Sofia Hafner. 2023. “Equal Accuracy for Andrew and Abubakar—Detecting and Mitigating Bias in Name-Ethnicity Classification Algorithms”. AI & Society 39: 1605–1629. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-022-01619-4
  68. Hanife, Andaç Demirtaş. 2021. “The Darker Side of the Virtual Environment: Online Discrimination”. Paradigm Shifts Within the Communication World, edited by Enes Emre Başar, 63–79. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
  69. Hanson, Andrew, and Zackary Hawley. 2011. “Do Landlords Discriminate in the Rental Housing Market? Evidence from an Internet Field Experiment in US Cities”. Journal of Urban Economics 70, no. 2: 99–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2011.02.003
  70. Harari, Herbert, and John W. McDavid. 1973. “Name Stereotypes and Teachers’ Expectations”. Journal of Educational Psychology 65, no. 2: 222–225. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0034978
  71. Harwood, Jake. 2020. Social Identity Theory. New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
  72. Heath, Anthony, and Sin Yi Cheung. 2007. Unequal Chances: Ethnic Minorities in Western Labour Markets. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press for the British Academy.
  73. Hine, Gregory. 2013. “The Importance of Action Research in Teacher Education Programs”. Issues in Educational Research 23, no. 2: 151–163. https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/informit.354483461821862
  74. Hogg, Michael A. 2016. “Social Identity Theory.” Understanding Peace and Conflict through Social Identity Theory, edited by Shelley McKeown, Reeshma Haji, and Neil Ferguson, 3–17, New York: Springer.
  75. Hogg, Michael A., Deborah J. Terry, and Katherine M. White. 1995. “A Tale of Two Theories: A Critical Comparison of Identity Theory with Social Identity Theory”. Social Psychology Quarterly 58, no. 4: 255–269. https://doi.org/10.2307/2787127
  76. Itzkowitz, Jennifer, and Jesse Itzkowitz. 2017. “Name-Based Behavioral Biases: Are Expert Investors Immune?” Journal of Behavioral Finance 18, no. 2: 180–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427560.2017.1308940
  77. Jiang, Yuhan. 2023. “How Name-Based Discrimination Affects Minority Groups”. Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences 9, no. 1: 64¬–68. https://doi.org/10.54097/ehss.v9i.6414
  78. Jodhka, Surinder S. 2017. Caste in Contemporary India. London: Routledge India.
  79. Kasapoğlu, Aytül M., and Mehmet C. Ecevit. 2004. “Culture and Social Structure: Identity in Turkey”. Human Studies 27, no. 2: 137–167. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:HUMA.0000022536.25841.d1
  80. Kim, Tae Young. 2007. “The Dynamics of Ethnic Name Maintenance and Change: Cases of Korean ESL Immigrants in Toronto”. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 28, no. 2: 117–133. https://doi.org/10.2167/jmmd419.1
  81. King, Eden B., Saaid A Mendoza, Juan M. Madera, Mikki R. Hebl, and Jennifer L. Knight. 2006. “What’s in a Name? A Multiracial Investigation of the Role of Occupational Stereotypes in Selection Decisions”. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 36, no. 5: 1145–1159. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00035.x
  82. Kirişci, Kemal. 1998. “Minority/Majority Discourse: The Case of the Kurds in Turkey”. Making Majorities: Constituting the Nation in Japan, Korea, China, Malaysia, Fiji, Turkey, and the United States, edited by Dru C. Gladney, 227–245. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
  83. Koschate, Miriam, and Rolf van Dick. 2011. “A Multilevel Test of Allport’s Contact Conditions”. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations 14, no. 6: 769–787. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430211399602
  84. Kozlowski, Diego, Dakota S. Murray, Alexis Bell, Will Hulsey, Vincent Larivière, Thema Monroe-White, and Cassidy R. Sugimoto. 2022. “Avoiding Bias When Inferring Race Using Name-Based Approaches”. PloS One 17, no. 3: 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0264270
  85. Kraiger, Kurt, J. Kevin Ford, and Eduardo Salas. 1993. “Application of Cognitive, Skill-Based, and Affective Theories of Learning Outcomes to New Methods of Training Evaluation”. Journal of Applied Psychology 78, no. 2: 311–328. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.2.311
  86. Lavy, Victor. 2008. “Do Gender Stereotypes Reduce Girls’ or Boys’ Human Capital Outcomes? Evidence from a Natural Experiment”. Journal of Public Economics 92, no. 10-11: 2083–2105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2008.02.009
  87. Lovaglia, Michael J. et al. 1998. “Status Processes and Mental Ability Test Scores”. American Journal of Sociology 104, no. 1: 195–228. https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1005&context=socy_facpub
  88. Martiniello, Beatrice, and Pieter-Paul Verhaeghe. 2022. “Signaling Ethnic-National Origin Through Names? The Perception of Names from an Intersectional Perspective”. PloS One 17, no. 8: e0270990. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0270990
  89. Mateos, Pablo. 2007. “A Review of Name‐Based Ethnicity Classification Methods and Their Potential in Population Studies”. Population, Space and Place 13, no. 4: 243–263. https://doi.org/10.1002/psp.457
  90. Maudslay, Rachel H., Hila Gonen, Ryan Cotterell, and Simone Teufel. 2019. “It's All in the Name: Mitigating Gender Bias with Name-Based Counterfactual Data Substitution”. arXiv: 1–12. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1909.00871 https://arxiv.org/pdf/2402.14875
  91. McDavid, John W., and Herbert Harari. 1966. “Stereotyping of Names and Popularity in Grade-School Children”. Child Development 37, no. 2: 453–459. https://doi.org/10.2307/1126818
  92. McKeown, Shelley, and John Dixon. 2017. “The ‘Contact Hypothesis’: Critical Reflections and Future Directions”. Social and Personality Psychology Compass 11, no. 1: e12295. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12295
  93. Mehrotra, Raja Ram. 1982. “Impact of Religion on Hindi Personal Names”. Names 30, n. 1: 43–47. https://doi.org/10.1179/nam.1982.30.1.43
  94. Morin, Stacey L. 2024. “Name Bias: Application Through the 4-Step Process Using Foundations of Critical Theory in Organizational Settings”. Business Ethics and Leadership 8, no. 1: 163–171. https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2935-8332
  95. Morgül, Kerem, and Osman Savaşkan. 2021. “Identity or Interests? Religious Conservatives’ Attitudes Toward Syrian Refugees in Turkey”. Migration Studies 9, no. 4: 1645–1672. https://doi.org/10.1093/migration/mnab039
  96. Moss-Racusin, Corinne A. et al. 2013. “Science Faculty's Subtle Gender Biases Favor Male Students”. Women, Science, and Technology: A Reader in Feminist Science Studies, edited by Mary Wyer et al., 3–14. New York: Routledge.
  97. Natali, Denise. 2005. The Kurds and the State: Evolving National Identity in Iraq, Turkey, and Iran. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press.
  98. Nick, I. M. 2017. “Names, Grades, and Metamorphosis: A Small-Scale Socio-Onomastic Investigation into the Effects of Ethnicity and Gender-Marked Personal Names on the Pedagogical Assessments of a Grade School Essay”. Names 65, no. 3: 129–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/00277738.2017.1304100
  99. Nick, I. M., ed. 2023. Names, Naming, and the Law: Onomastics, Identity, Power, and Policy. New York: Taylor & Francis.
  100. Nghiem, Huy, John Prindle, Jieyu Zhao, and Hal Daumé. 2024. “‘You Gotta be a Doctor, Lin’: An Investigation of Name-Based Bias of Large Language Models in Employment Recommendations”. arXiv: 1–18. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2406.12232
  101. Noble, Safiya Umoja. 2018. Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism. Manhattan: NYU Press.
  102. Olatunji, Abdulganiy et al. 2015. “Personal Name as a Reality of Everyday Life: Naming Dynamics in Select African Societies”. The Journal of Pan African Studies 8, no. 3: 72–90. https://www.jpanafrican.org/docs/vol8no3/8.3-8-Olatunji.pdf
  103. Oreopoulos, Philip. 2009. “Why Do Skilled Immigrants Struggle in the Labour Market? A Field Experiment with Six Thousand Résumés”. Working Paper Series. No. 09 – 03. Metropolis British Columbia: Centre of Excellence for Research on Immigration and Diversity. https://triec.ca/uploads/347/why_do_immigrants_struggle_in_the_labour_market.pdf
  104. Otten, Sabine. 2005. “The Ingroup as Part of the Self: Reconsidering the Link Between Social Categorization, Ingroup Favoritism, and the Self-Concept”. The Self in Social Judgment, edited by Mark D. Alicke, David A. Dunning, and Joachim I. Krueger, 241–265. New York, NY: Psychology Press.
  105. Özdalga, Elisabeth. 2006. “The Hidden Arab: A Critical Reading of the Notion of ‘Turkish Islam’”. Middle Eastern Studies 42, no. 4: 551–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/00263200600642217
  106. Paludi, Michele A., and Lisa A. Strayer. 1985. “What's in an Author's Name? Differential Evaluations of Performance as a Function of Author's Name”. Sex Roles 12, no. 3/4: 353–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287601
  107. Paluck, Elizabeth Levy, Seth A. Green, and Donald P. Green. 2019. “The Contact Hypothesis Re-Evaluated”. Behavioural Public Policy 3, no. 2: 129–158. https://doi.org/10.1017/bpp.2018.25
  108. Peters, Eleanor. 2023. “Patrilineal Bias in the Adoption of Surnames following Marriage in the United Kingdom and the United States”, Names, Naming, and the Law: Onomastics, Identity, Power, and Policy, edited by I.M. Nick, 19–34. New York: Routledge.
  109. Pettigrew, Thomas F. 1997. “Generalized Intergroup Contact Effects on Prejudice”. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 23, no. 2: 173–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167297232006
  110. Pettigrew, Thomas F. 1998. “Intergroup Contact Theory”. Annual Review of Psychology 49, no. 1: 65–85. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.49.1.65
  111. Pettigrew, Thomas F., and Linda R. Tropp. 2005. “Allport’s Intergroup Contact Hypothesis: Its History and Influence”. On the Nature of Prejudice: Fifty Years after Allport, edited by John F. Dovidio, Peter Glick, and Laurie A. Rudman, 262–277. New Jersey: Wiley-Blackwell.
  112. Phinney, Jean S. 1990. “Ethnic Identity in Adolescents and Adults: Review of Research”. Readings in Ethnic Psychology, edited by Pamela Balls Organista, Kevin Chun, Gerardo Marin, 73–99. New York: Routledge.
  113. Redding, Richard E. 2004. “Bias on Prejudice? The Politics of Research on Racial Prejudice”. Psychological Inquiry 15, no. 4: 289-293. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20447241
  114. Robinson Jr, Jerry W., and James D. Preston. 1976. “Equal-Status Contact and Modification of Racial Prejudice: A Reexamination of the Contact Hypothesis”. Social Forces 54, no. 4: 911–924. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/54.4.911
  115. Romano, David. 2006. The Kurdish Nationalist Movement: Opportunity, Mobilization and Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  116. Rooth, Dan-Olof. 2010. “Automatic Associations and Discrimination in Hiring: Real World Evidence”. Labour Economics 17, no. 3: 523–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2009.04.005
  117. Rumbaut, Rubén G. 2008. “The Coming of the Second Generation: Immigration and Ethnic Mobility in Southern California”. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 620, no. 1: 196-236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716208322957
  118. Sánchez, Muñoz Sánchez, Simon Dobnik, Maria Irena Szawerna, Therese Lindström Tiedemann, and Elena Volodina. 2024. “Did the Names I Used Within My Essay Affect My Score? Diagnosing Name Biases in Automated Essay Scoring”. Proceedings of the Workshop on Computational Approaches to Language Data Pseudonymization, 2024, 81–91. https://aclanthology.org/2024.caldpseudo-1.10.pdf
  119. Sarıgil, Zeki. 2018. “Ethnic and Religious Prejudices in the Turkish Social Landscape.” European Sociological Review 34, no. 6: 711–727. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcy036
  120. Scheepers, Daan, and Naomi Ellemers. 2019. “Social Identity Theory”. Social Psychology in Action: Evidence‐Based Interventions from Theory to Practice, edited by Kai Sassenberg and Michael L. W. Vliek, 129–143. New York: Springer.
  121. Silberzahn, Raphael, and Eric Luis Uhlmann. 2013. “It Pays to Be Herr Kaiser: Germans with Noble-Sounding Last Names More Often Work as Managers”. Academy of Management Proceedings, 16537. https://doi.org/10.5465/ambpp.2013.16537abstract
  122. Smith, Christopher B. 1994. “Back and to the Future: The Intergroup Contact Hypothesis Revisited”. Sociological Inquiry 64, no. 4: 438–455. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.1994.tb00401.x
  123. Smith, Eric Michael, and Adina Williams. 2021. “Hi, My Name is Martha: Using Names to Measure and Mitigate Bias in Generative Dialogue Models”. arXiv: 1-19. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2109.03300
  124. Sprietsma, Maresa. 2009. “Discrimination in Grading? Experimental Evidence from Primary School Teachers”. Empirical Economics 45, no. 1: 523–538. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-012-0609-x
  125. Steele, Claude M., and Joshua Aronson. 1995. “Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69, no. 5: 797–811. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797
  126. Suveren, Yaşar. 2022. “ Unconscious Bias: Definition and Significance”. Current Approaches in Psychiatry 14, no. 3: 414-426. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1051059
  127. Sweeney, Latanya. 2013. “Discrimination in Online Ad Delivery”. Communications of the ACM 56, no. 5: 44–54. https://doi.org/10.1145/2447976.2447990
  128. Tajfel, Henri, and John C. Turner. 2004. “The Social Identity Theory of Intergroup Behaviour”. Political Psychology, edited by Michael A. Hogg, 276–293. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
  129. Taşdemir, Nagihan. 2018. “Definitions of National Identity Boundaries and Attitudes Toward Syrian Refugees in Turkey”. Turkish Psychological Articles 21, 19–21. https://www.proquest.com/openview/6b72d5d337de765c27a80c0d56df6e10/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=296200
  130. Tezcür, Güneş Murat. 2009. “Kurdish Nationalism and Identity in Turkey: A Conceptual Reinterpretation”. European Journal of Turkish Studies 10: 1–19. https://doi.org/10.4000/ejts.4143.v
  131. Toros, Emre, Seyit Cilasun, and Aykut Toros. “Social and Economic Indicators of Household Income in Turkey: Does Ethnicity Matter?” Social Indicators Research 140: 191–208 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1762-6
  132. Towfighi, Sohrab, et al. 2022. “Using Onomastics to Inform Diversity Initiatives: Race, Gender, and Names in Academic Radiology in Canada”. Names 70, no. 3: 39–50. https://doi.org/10.5195/names.2022.2438
  133. Trepte, Sabine. 2013. “Social Identity Theory”. Psychology of Entertainment, edited by Jennings Bryant and Peter Vorderer, 255–271. New York: Routledge.
  134. Turk, David J., Sheila J Cunningham, and C. Neil Macrae. 2008. “Self-Memory Bias in Explicit and Incidental Encoding of Trait Adjectives”. Consciousness and Cognition 17, no. 3: 1040–1045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.concog.2008.02.004
  135. Turkoz, Meltem, Yurova Türköz. 2017. Naming and Nation-Building in Turkey. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
  136. Ucarlar, Nesrin. 2009. “Between Majority Power and Minority Resistance. “ PhD Dissertation, Lund University.
  137. Ünal, R. A. 2020. “Undoing Patrilineality: New Maternal Families and the Politics of Naming in Turkey”. Hawwa 20, no. 1-2: 182–205. https://doi.org/10.1163/15692086-12341391
  138. Van den Bergh, Linda, Edie Denessen, Lisette Hornstra, Marinus Voeten, and Rob W. Holland. 2010. “The Implicit Prejudiced Attitudes of Teachers: Relations to Teacher Expectations and the Ethnic Achievement Gap”. American Educational Research Journal 47, no. 2: 497–527. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831209353594
  139. Van Ewijk, Reyn. 2011. “Same Work, Lower Grade? Student Ethnicity and Teachers’ Subjective Assessments”. Economics of Education Review 30, no. 5: 1045–1058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2011.05.008
  140. Verkuyten, Maykel. 2006. “Multicultural Recognition and Ethnic Minority Rights: A Social Identity Perspective”. European Review of Social Psychology 17, no. 1: 148-184. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280600937418
  141. Wei, Yumou, Paula F. Carvalho, and John Stamper. 2024. “Uncovering Name-Based Biases in Large Language Models Through Simulated Trust Game”. arXiv: 1–15. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2404.14682
  142. Widner, Daniel, and Stephen Chicoine. 2011. “It’s All in the Name: Employment Discrimination against Arab Americans”. Sociological Forum 26, no. 4: 806–823. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1573-7861.2011.01285.x
  143. Wilson, Thomas C. 1996. “Prejudice Reduction or Self‐Selection? A Test of the Contact Hypothesis”. Sociological Spectrum 16, no. 1: 43–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.1996.9982119
  144. Wittig, Michele Andrisin, and Sheila Grant-Thompson. 1998. “The Utility of Allport's Conditions of Intergroup Contact for Predicting Perceptions of Improved Racial Attitudes and Beliefs”. Journal of Social Issues 54, no. 4: 795–812. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1998.tb01249.x
  145. Wood, Martin, Jon Hales, Susan Purdon, Tanja Sejersen, and Oliver Hayllar. 2009. “A Test for Racial Discrimination in Recruitment Practice in British Cities”. Research Report. No. 607. Norwich: Department for Work and Pensions. https://www.academia.edu/download/15700064/rrep607.pdf
  146. Zhao, Xian, and Monica Biernat. 2017. “Welcome to the US” but “change your name”? Adopting Anglo Names and Discrimination”. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 70: 59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.12.008